Article Figures & Data
Tables
- Table 1
- Demographic and clinical characteristics of patients who survived COVID-19 infection.
Characteristics n (%) Do you live in Riyadh? No 47 (13.2) Yes 308 (86.8) Total 355 (100) Have you been diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder? No 348 (98.3) Yes 6 (1.7) Total 354 (100) Have you been referred to psychiatric services or are you using any psychiatric medications? No 324 (91) Yes 32 (9) Total 356 (100) - Table 2
- Responses of patients (N=356) in domain 1: rumination of ideas, sexual obsessions, aggressive obsessions, and religious obsessions.
Responses of patients Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always 1 It bothers me to remember very boring details 51 (14.4) 73 (20.6) 145 (40.8) 53 (14.9) 33 (9.3) 2 I have thoughts from which I cannot escape, even though I know that they are not true or trivial 110 (31.0) 78 (22.0) 95 (26.8) 47 (13.2) 25 (7.0) 3 I think back to what I am told 33 (9.3) 58 (16.3) 135 (37.9) 77 (21.6) 53 (14.9) 4 I focus very deeply and for a long time in certain situations 48 (13.6) 62 (17.5) 117 (33.1) 81 (22.9) 46 (13.0) 15 I feel very afraid while driving my car that I have hit or run over someone 290 (82.6) 27 (7.7) 18 (5.1) 8 (2.3) 8 (2.3) 16 I have aggressive dreams that bother me 232 (65.5) 63 (17.8) 41 (11.6) 13 (3.7) 5 (1.4) 17 I fear that I have fallen into polytheism or disbelief 249 (70.5) 49 (13.9) 40 (11.3) 10 (2.8) 5 (1.4) 18 I no longer feel the sweetness of faith or reverence in my prayer to God 138 (39.2) 66 (18.8) 85 (24.1) 47 (13.4) 16 (4.5) 5 I have pressing thoughts when I go to sleep 79 (22.3) 93 (26.2) 89 (25.1) 52 (14.6) 42 (11.8) 6 The tape of events that occurred during the day haunts me in a disturbing way 96 (27.2) 106 (30.0) 92 (26.1) 42 (11.9) 17 (4.8) 7 I think of every little thing 66 (18.6) 59 (16.7) 120 (33.9) 67 (18.9) 42 (11.9) 8 I am occupied with the idea of the sexual act with incest 301 (85.5) 23 (6.5) 16 (4.5) 3 (0.9) 9 (2.6) 19 I ask myself who and where is our God? 283 (80.2) 31 (8.8) 24 (6.8) 9 (2.5) 6 (1.7) 20 I doubt the prophets and the heavenly religions 316 (89.5) 16 (4.5) 12 (3.4) 8 (2.3) 1 (0.3) 21 I have whispers about religion, the Messenger, or the heavenly books 309 (87.3) 21 (5.9) 19 (5.4) 4 (1.1) 1 (0.3) 22 Whenever I remember the Divine Self, I get mixed up in horrible images that I cannot stand 314 (89.7) 17 (4.9) 13 (3.7) 5 (1.4) 1 (0.3) 9 I have bossy thoughts about masturbation or the hymen 239 (68.1) 43 (12.3) 37 (10.5) 23 (6.6) 9 (2.6) 10 I have some immoral thoughts 202 (56.9) 64 (18.0) 63 (17.7) 17 (4.8) 9 (2.5) 11 I think about disturbing sexual things 214 (60.5) 59 (16.7) 53 (15.0) 23 (6.5) 5 (1.4) 17 I fear that I have fallen into polytheism or disbelief 249 (70.5) 49 (13.9) 40 (11.3) 10 (2.8) 5 (1.4) 18 I no longer feel the sweetness of faith or reverence in my prayer to God 138 (39.2) 66 (18.8) 85 (24.1) 47 (13.4) 16 (4.5) 24 I doubt the validity of my fasting 251 (71.1) 51 (14.4) 35 (9.9) 12 (3.4) 4 (1.1) - Table 3
- Responses of patients (N=356) in domain 2: cleanliness and fear of disease obsessions, obbsessive impulses and images, general and miscellaneous compulsions, and religious compulsions.
Responses of patients Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always 25 I think of doubts related to the faith 262 (74.9) 46 (13.1) 32 (9.1) 10 (2.9) 0 (0.0) 26 I have thoughts about purification, purity and impurity 238 (68.0) 53 (15.1) 33 (9.4) 20 (5.7) 6 (1.7) 27 I have doubts about hygiene 232 (66.1) 62 (17.7) 34 (9.7) 18 (5.1) 5 (1.4) 28 I doubt my intention or my readiness for prayer and others 244 (69.3) 51 (14.5) 35 (9.9) 14 (4.0) 8 (2.3) 29 I think that my obsessions about hygiene are exhausting me 259 (73.8) 50 (14.2) 27 (7.7) 8 (2.3) 7 (2.0) 30 I doubt the impurity of water 285 (80.7) 40 (11.3) 18 (5.1) 7 (2.0) 3 (0.8) 31 I am afraid of infection and contamination with germs 167 (47.6) 71 (20.2) 78 (22.2) 22 (6.3) 13 (3.7) 32 It bothers me that many things cause my uncleanness/contamination 235 (67.3) 56 (16.0) 39 (11.2) 11 (3.2) 8 (2.3) 33 I doubt that ablution is invalidated 187 (53.1) 82 (23.3) 56 (15.9) 22 (6.3) 5 (1.4) 34 I’m afraid of reading doctors’ signs 293 (83.7) 23 (6.6) 22 (6.3) 10 (2.9) 2 (0.6) 35 I am occupied with the idea of committing a specific crime, such as murder and others 289 (82.8) 30 (8.6) 18 (5.2) 9 (2.6) 3 (0.9) 36 I feel compelled to masturbate 236 (67.8) 49 (14.1) 39 (11.2) 14 (4.0) 10 (2.9) 37 I feel like I’m about to hurt myself or others 290 (82.6) 28 (8.0) 17 (4.8) 11 (3.1) 5 (1.4) 38 Involuntarily I feel that I have to look at certain things, such as the private parts of others 241 (69.1) 45 (12.9) 38 (10.9) 15 (4.3) 10 (2.9) 39 When I stand in line for prayer, I feel the urge to hit the person infront of me 333 (95.7) 7 (2.0) 4 (1.1) 3 (0.9) 1 (0.3) 40 I suffer from a compulsive insult to the religion, the Messenger, or the heavenly books 336 (96.6) 5 (1.4) 4 (1.1) 2 (0.6) 1 (0.3) 41 I have intrusive idea of raising my voice with ugly words 274 (79.0) 39 (11.2) 23 (6.6) 9 (2.6) 2 (0.6) 42 When I hold a knife or scissors, I have intrusive idea of killing or hurting 308 (88.3) 20 (5.7) 10 (2.9) 9 (2.6) 2 (0.6) 43 I have disturbing pictures that impose themselves on me very much 271 (77.7) 39 (11.2) 24 (6.9) 9 (2.6) 6 (1.7) 44 I imagine immoral scenes that annoy me during prayer 241 (69.5) 73 (21.0) 24 (6.9) 7 (2.0) 2 (0.6) 45 I have sexual images (such as homosexuality) that bother me 280 (80.5%) 32 (9.2) 21 (6.0) 11 (3.2) 4 (1.1) 46 Whenever I remember the Divine Self, I get mixed up with ugly words 323 (93.1) 14 (4.0) 5 (1.4) 4 (1.2) 1 (0.3) 47 I do things that don’t make sense to others 246 (70.7) 60 (17.2) 32 (9.2) 8 (2.3) 2 (0.6) 48 People get annoyed by my repetitive questions 225 (64.8) 60 (17.3) 53 (15.3) 8 (2.3) 1 (0.3) 49 People get annoyed when I get caught up in details 204 (58.6) 58 (16.7) 64 (18.4) 17 (4.9) 5 (1.4) 50 I do certain things to escape a certain damage 177 (51.5) 48 (14.0) 79 (23.0) 30 (8.7) 10 (2.9) 51 I feel compelled to count certain things, such as electricity poles in the street, steps in the house, or trees on the road 223 (64.5) 59 (17.1) 40 (11.6) 17 (4.9) 7 (2.0) - Table 4
- Responses of patients (N=356) in domain 3: purity and cleanliness compulsions, slowness, re-checking compulsions, and touch rituals.
Responses of patients Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Always 52 In prayer, I re-read Al-Fatihah more than once 211 (61.5) 82 (23.9) 35 (10.2) 7 (2.0) 8 (2.3) 53 In my prayer I have a whisper in the direction of the qiblah 283 (81.1) 47 (13.5) 17 (4.9) 1 (0.3) 1 (0.3) 54 I do not pray in the clothes I entered the bathroom with 308 (88.8) 25 (7.2) 8 (2.3) 4 (1.2) 2 (0.6) 55 When I ask a cleric, I repeat the question many times and for different people 270 (77.6) 49 (14.1) 21 (6.0) 7 (2.0) 1 (0.3) 56 I repeat washing the parts of ablution more than necessary 264 (76.1) 42 (12.1) 35 (10.1) 5 (1.4) 1 (0.3) 57 I take a shower more than once 286 (82.4) 36 (10.4) 19 (5.5) 6 (1.7) 0 (0.0) 58 I spit a lot so as not to swallow my saliva that is contaminated with dust and pollutants 284 (82.1) 28 (8.1) 18 (5.2) 12 (3.5) 4 (1.2) 59 Re-clean things a set number of times 255 (73.9) 54 (15.7) 23 (6.7) 8 (2.3) 5 (1.4) 60 When I clean myself after defecation and urination, I must wash my feet 260 (75.8) 35 (10.2) 26 (7.6) 7 (2.0) 15 (4.4) 61 Wash the soap several times before using it 211 (61.0) 64 (18.5) 42 (12.1) 16 (4.6) 13 (3.8) 62 I must take a bath after defecation and urination 204 (59.5) 29 (8.5) 20 (5.8) 11 (3.2) 79 (23.0) 63 I take a long time to perform ablution 255 (73.5) 53 (15.3) 28 (8.1) 7 (2.0) 4 (1.2) 64 I spend too much time cutting my nails 258 (75.0) 45 (13.1) 28 (8.1) 6 (1.7) 7 (2.0) 65 I’m getting too slow 187 (54.4) 67 (19.5) 62 (18.0) 18 (5.2) 10 (2.9) 66 I am very slow in carrying out duties and responsibilities 143 (41.2) 83 (23.9) 77 (22.2) 28 (8.1) 16 (4.6) 67 I re-check things more than once until feel comfortable 115 (33.1) 74 (21.3) 88 (25.4) 44 (12.7) 26 (7.5) 68 Whenever I throw something in the garbage, I am afraid that it will contain what interests me 189 (54.8) 88 (25.5) 50 (14.5) 7 (2.0) 11 (3.2) 69 I check my wallet several times daily 216 (62.8) 62 (18.0) 38 (11.0) 20 (5.8) 8 (2.3) 70 I repeat cleaning things many times 226 (65.3) 69 (19.9) 30 (8.7) 7 (2.0) 14 (4.0) 71 There are certain things in my house that I cannot touch 290 (84.1) 35 (10.1) 9 (2.6) 5 (1.4) 6 (1.7) 72 Be careful not to be touched by anyone in the street 219 (63.3) 47 (13.6) 47 (13.6) 13 (3.8) 20 (5.8) 73 I avoid touching or having my clothes touch certain things (such as the walls of the house, the floor, shoes, etc.) 251 (72.5) 40 (11.6) 35 (10.1) 9 (2.6) 11 (3.2) 74 I am afraid of touching gas pipes 257 (74.3) 45 (13.0) 20 (5.8) 15 (4.3) 9 (2.6) 75 I am afraid of touching certain things 205 (59.2) 60 (17.3) 45 (13.0) 24 (6.9) 12 (3.5) 76 My pressing thoughts take several hours a day 203 (59.0) 66 (19.2) 56 (16.3) 14 (4.1) 5 (1.5) 77 I waste in my rituals (such as prayer) several hours a day 253 (73.8) 56 (16.3) 23 (6.7) 6 (1.7) 5 (1.5) 78 My persistence in thoughts affects my daily activities to a large extent 182 (52.9) 60 (17.4) 60 (17.4) 31 (9.0) 11 (3.2) 79 The rituals I perform affect my daily activities to a great extent 225 (64.8) 60 (17.3) 42 (12.1) 12 (3.5) 8 (2.3) 80 My daily rituals negatively affected my relationships with others 239 (68.7) 49 (14.1) 33 (9.5) 21 (6.0) 6 (1.7) 81 My pressing thoughts negatively affected my relationship with people 251 (72.3) 44 (12.7) 26 (7.5) 18 (5.2) 8 (2.3) 82 My daily ritual annoys my family 237 (68.3) 49 (14.1) 43 (12.4) 15 (4.3) 3 (0.9) 83 My compulsive actions negatively affect my achievement in my work or study 238 (68.8) 50 (14.5) 33 (9.5) 16 (4.6) 9 (2.6) - Table 5
- Comparisons of the total and domain scores of OCD scale in patients who survived COVID-19 infection and reference population of the Arabic OCD scale.
characteristics Min Max Mean SD Reference1 Mean difference2 P-value3 Rumination of ideas 4 35 19.3 6.7 9.49 -0.51 0.005 Sexual obsessions 3 20 6.4 3.2 9.55 -0.45 0.626 Aggressive obsessions 4 24 7.4 3.2 8.19 -1.81 <0.001 Religious obsessions 6 37 13.2 5.3 8.22 -1.78 <0.001 Cleanliness and fear of disease obsessions 3 39 14.0 6.1 8.06 -1.94 <0.001 Obsessive impulses 4 32 10.5 4.0 9.91 -0.09 <0.001 Obsessive images 2 18 5.3 2.3 7.84 -2.16 <0.001 General and miscellaneous compulsions 4 20 8.3 3.6 6.75 -3.25 <0.001 Religious compulsions 1 15 5.3 1.9 6.69 -3.31 <0.001 Purity and cleanliness compulsions 6 29 10.8 4.5 14.36 4.36 <0.001 Slowness 3 20 6.8 3.1 8.28 -1.72 <0.001 Re-checking compulsions 2 20 7.4 3.4 7.94 -2.06 <0.001 Touch rituals 4 25 7.8 3.7 7.34 -2.66 <0.001 The effect of obsessive-compulsive disorder on daily activities 4 39 12.8 6.2 8.37 -1.63 <0.001 Total OCD scale 22 343 133.2 44.8 43.0 -7.0 <0.001 Min - minimum, max - maximum, SD - standard deviation,
↵1 Reference indicates the standardized value of the Arabic OCD scale that corresponds to the raw values obtained in the current study,
↵2 Mean difference indicates the difference between the standardized (or T score in total only) value of the Arabic OCD scale and the standardized value (or T score in total only) obtained in the current study. Standardized values in both the reference and study have mean of 10 and standard deviation of 3T score in both the reference and study have mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10,
↵3 p-value indicates the statistical differences between the standardized (or T score in total only) obtained in the current study and reference. They were calculated using non-parametric test; one-sample Wilcoxon signed rank test
- Table 6
- Total and domain scores of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) scale by demographic and clinical characteristics of patients who survived COVID-19 infection.
characteristics Have you been diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder? Have you been referred to psychiatric services or are you using any psychiatric medications? Do you live in Riyadh? Yes No P-value Yes No P-value Yes No P-value Rumination of ideas 20.5±6.7 19.3±6.7 0.639 23.3±5.5 19.0±6.7 <0.001 19.1±6.8 20.8±6.1 0.077 Sexual obsessions 6.2±3.0 6.4±3.2 0.907 7.6±4.3 6.3±3.1 0.172 6.1±3.0 8.0±4.1 0.003 Aggressive obsessions 9.7±6.7 7.3±3.1 0.846 9.2±3.8 7.2±3.1 0.001 7.2±3.1 8.2±3.8 0.120 Religious obsessions 17.0±6.4 13.1±5.3 0.033 17.2±8.4 12.8±4.8 0.006 13.1±5.2 13.7±6.1 0.589 Cleanliness and fear of disease obsessions 17.3±5.5 13.9±6.1 0.070 15.9±6.8 13.8±5.9 0.072 13.7±5.7 15.8±7.7 0.093 Obsessive impulses 11.5±4.5 10.4±4.0 0.569 11.9±4.2 10.3±4.0 0.025 10.1±3.5 12.5±6.3 0.036 Obsessive images 6.8±2.5 5.3±2.2 0.026 5.7±2.4 5.2±2.2 0.144 5.2±2.1 5.9±2.9 0.205 General and miscellaneous compulsions 8.2±4.0 8.3±3.5 0.805 9.7±3.8 8.2±3.5 0.032 8.0±3.3 10.2±4.7 0.004 Religious compulsions 5.5±1.6 5.3±1.9 0.555 5.4±2.0 5.3±1.9 0.723 5.2±1.8 5.9±2.5 0.072 Purity and cleanliness compulsions 10.2±4.6 10.8±4.6 0.705 11.7±5.0 10.7±4.5 0.275 10.5±4.3 12.5±5.5 0.018 Slowness 6.2±3.1 6.8±3.1 0.533 7.4±2.9 6.7±3.1 0.120 6.5±2.9 8.4±4.0 0.003 Re-checking compulsions 6.7±2.2 7.4±3.5 0.874 8.5±3.6 7.3±3.4 0.031 7.2±3.3 8.3±4.2 0.176 Touch rituals 7.3±1.4 7.8±3.7 0.570 8.2±3.1 7.7±3.7 0.194 7.7±3.7 8.4±3.6 0.139 The effect of obsessive-compulsive disorder on daily activities 10.8±3.4 12.8±6.2 0.741 16.7±8.1 12.4±5.8 0.002 12.5±5.8 15.1±7.8 0.055 Total OCD scale 143.8±29.3 133.1±45.1 0.250 156.5±50.1 130.9±43.7 0.004 130.5±42.1 150.8±57.4 0.058
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