Skip to main content

Main menu

  • Home
  • Content
    • Latest
    • Ahead of print
    • Archive
  • Info for
    • Authors
    • Reviewers
    • Subscribers
    • Institutions
    • Advertisers
  • About Us
    • About Us
    • Editorial Office
    • Editorial Board
  • More
    • Alerts
    • Feedback
    • Folders
    • Help
  • Other Publications
    • Saudi Medical Journal

User menu

  • My alerts
  • Log in

Search

  • Advanced search
Neurosciences Journal
  • Other Publications
    • Saudi Medical Journal
  • My alerts
  • Log in
Neurosciences Journal

Advanced Search

  • Home
  • Content
    • Latest
    • Ahead of print
    • Archive
  • Info for
    • Authors
    • Reviewers
    • Subscribers
    • Institutions
    • Advertisers
  • About Us
    • About Us
    • Editorial Office
    • Editorial Board
  • More
    • Alerts
    • Feedback
    • Folders
    • Help
  • Follow psmmc on Twitter
  • Visit psmmc on Facebook
  • RSS
ReviewReview Article
Open Access

The complex regional pain syndrome: Diagnosis and management strategies

Fahad S. Alshehri
Neurosciences Journal October 2023, 28 (4) 211-219; DOI: https://doi.org/10.17712/nsj.2023.4.20230034
Fahad S. Alshehri
From the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Pharm.D, MSc, PHD
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • ORCID record for Fahad S. Alshehri
  • For correspondence: [email protected]
  • Article
  • Figures & Data
  • eLetters
  • Info & Metrics
  • References
  • PDF
Loading

References

  1. 1.↵
    1. Bruehl S
    . Complex regional pain syndrome. BMJ 2015; 351: h2730.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  2. 2.↵
    1. Tajerian M,
    2. Sahbaie P,
    3. Sun Y,
    4. Leu D,
    5. Yang HY,
    6. Li W, et al.
    Sex differences in a Murine Model of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2015; 123: 100–109.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  3. 3.↵
    1. Birklein F
    . Complex regional pain syndrome. J Neurol 2005; 252: 131–138.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  4. 4.↵
    1. Bruehl S
    . An update on the pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome. Anesthesiology 2010; 113: 713–725.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  5. 5.↵
    1. Gibbs GF,
    2. Drummond PD,
    3. Finch PM,
    4. Phillips JK
    . Unravelling the pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome: focus on sympathetically maintained pain. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2008; 35: 717–724.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  6. 6.↵
    1. Harden RN,
    2. Bruehl S,
    3. Perez RS,
    4. Birklein F,
    5. Marinus J,
    6. Maihofner C, et al.
    Validation of proposed diagnostic criteria (the “Budapest Criteria”) for complex regional pain syndrome. Pain 2010; 150: 268–274.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  7. 7.↵
    1. Schurmann M,
    2. Zaspel J,
    3. Lohr P,
    4. Wizgall I,
    5. Tutic M,
    6. Manthey N, et al.
    Imaging in early posttraumatic complex regional pain syndrome: a comparison of diagnostic methods. Clin J Pain 2007; 23: 449–457.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  8. 8.↵
    1. Kessler A,
    2. Yoo M,
    3. Calisoff R
    . Complex regional pain syndrome: An updated comprehensive review. NeuroRehabilitation 2020; 47: 253–264.
    OpenUrl
  9. 9.↵
    1. Iolascon G,
    2. Moretti A
    . Pharmacotherapeutic options for complex regional pain syndrome. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2019; 20: 1377–1386.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  10. 10.↵
    1. Correll GE,
    2. Maleki J,
    3. Gracely EJ,
    4. Muir JJ,
    5. Harbut RE
    . Subanesthetic ketamine infusion therapy: a retrospective analysis of a novel therapeutic approach to complex regional pain syndrome. Pain Med 2004; 5: 263–275.
    OpenUrl
  11. 11.↵
    1. Garg A,
    2. Danesh H
    . Neuromodulation of the Cervical Dorsal Root Ganglion for Upper Extremity Complex Regional Pain Syndrome-Case Report. Neuromodulation 2015; 18: 765–768.
    OpenUrl
  12. 12.↵
    1. Schwartz RG
    . Stem cells for the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS)/reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD): a case study. Pan American Journal of Medical Thermology 2015; 1: 89–92.
    OpenUrl
  13. 13.↵
    1. Reinders MF,
    2. Geertzen JH,
    3. Dijkstra PU
    . Complex regional pain syndrome type I: use of the International Association for the Study of Pain diagnostic criteria defined in 1994. Clin J Pain 2002; 18: 207–215.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  14. 14.↵
    1. Botha S
    . Reflex sympathetic dystrophy/complex regional pain syndrome, type 1. SA Journal of Radiology 2004; 8: 38–40.
    OpenUrl
  15. 15.↵
    1. Parkitny L,
    2. McAuley JH,
    3. Di Pietro F,
    4. Stanton TR,
    5. O’Connell NE,
    6. Marinus J, et al.
    Inflammation in complex regional pain syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology 2013; 80: 106–117.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  16. 16.↵
    1. Naleschinski D,
    2. Baron R
    . Complex regional pain syndrome type I: neuropathic or not? Curr Pain Headache Rep 2010; 14: 196–202.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  17. 17.↵
    1. Rommel O,
    2. Malin JP,
    3. Zenz M,
    4. Janig W
    . Quantitative sensory testing, neurophysiological and psychological examination in patients with complex regional pain syndrome and hemisensory deficits. Pain 2001; 93: 279–293.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  18. 18.↵
    1. Bharwani KD,
    2. Dik WA,
    3. Dirckx M,
    4. Huygen F
    . Highlighting the Role of Biomarkers of Inflammation in the Diagnosis and Management of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Mol Diagn Ther 2019; 23: 615–626.
    OpenUrl
  19. 19.↵
    1. Li WW,
    2. Sabsovich I,
    3. Guo TZ,
    4. Zhao R,
    5. Kingery WS,
    6. Clark DJ
    . The role of enhanced cutaneous IL-1beta signaling in a rat tibia fracture model of complex regional pain syndrome. Pain 2009; 144: 303–313.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  20. 20.↵
    1. Maihofner C,
    2. Handwerker HO,
    3. Neundorfer B,
    4. Birklein F
    . Mechanical hyperalgesia in complex regional pain syndrome: a role for TNF-alpha? Neurology 2005; 65: 311–313.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  21. 21.↵
    1. Marinus J,
    2. Moseley GL,
    3. Birklein F,
    4. Baron R,
    5. Maihofner C,
    6. Kingery WS, et al.
    Clinical features and pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome. Lancet Neurol 2011; 10: 637–648.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  22. 22.↵
    1. Knudsen LF,
    2. Terkelsen AJ,
    3. Drummond PD,
    4. Birklein F
    . Complex regional pain syndrome: a focus on the autonomic nervous system. Clin Auton Res 2019; 29: 457–467.
    OpenUrl
  23. 23.↵
    1. Birklein F,
    2. Riedl B,
    3. Claus D,
    4. Neundorfer B
    . Pattern of autonomic dysfunction in time course of complex regional pain syndrome. Clin Auton Res 1998; 8: 79–85.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  24. 24.↵
    1. Mahroum N,
    2. Shoenfeld Y
    . Autoimmune Autonomic Dysfunction Syndromes: Potential Involvement and Pathophysiology Related to Complex Regional Pain Syndrome, Fibromyalgia, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Silicone Breast Implant-Related Symptoms and Post-COVID Syndrome. Pathophysiology 2022; 29: 414–425.
    OpenUrl
  25. 25.↵
    1. Tajerian M,
    2. Leu D,
    3. Zou Y,
    4. Sahbaie P,
    5. Li W,
    6. Khan H, et al.
    Brain neuroplastic changes accompany anxiety and memory deficits in a model of complex regional pain syndrome. Anesthesiology 2014; 121: 852–865.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  26. 26.↵
    1. Di Pietro F,
    2. Lee B,
    3. Henderson LA
    . Altered resting activity patterns and connectivity in individuals with complex regional pain syndrome. Hum Brain Mapp 2020; 41: 3781–3793.
    OpenUrl
  27. 27.↵
    1. Day RO,
    2. Graham GG
    . Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). BMJ 2013; 346: f3195.
    OpenUrlFREE Full Text
  28. 28.↵
    1. Cashman JN
    . The mechanisms of action of NSAIDs in analgesia. Drugs 1996; 52: 13–23.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  29. 29.↵
    1. Eraghi AS,
    2. Khazanchin A,
    3. Hosseinzadeh N,
    4. Pahlevansabagh A
    . A randomized controlled trial on Aspirin and complex regional pain syndrome after radius fractures. Eur J Transl Myol 2020; 30: 8643.
    OpenUrl
  30. 30.
    1. Breuer AJ,
    2. Mainka T,
    3. Hansel N,
    4. Maier C,
    5. Krumova EK
    . Short-term treatment with parecoxib for complex regional pain syndrome: a randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Pain Physician 2014; 17: 127–137.
    OpenUrl
  31. 31.↵
    1. Eckmann MS,
    2. Ramamurthy S,
    3. Griffin JG
    . Intravenous regional ketorolac and lidocaine in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome of the lower extremity: a randomized, double-blinded, crossover study. Clin J Pain 2011; 27: 203–206.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  32. 32.↵
    1. Lee SK,
    2. Yang DS,
    3. Lee JW,
    4. Choy WS
    . Four treatment strategies for complex regional pain syndrome type 1. Orthopedics 2012; 35: e834–e842.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  33. 33.↵
    1. Albazaz R,
    2. Wong YT,
    3. Homer-Vanniasinkam S
    . Complex regional pain syndrome: a review. Ann Vasc Surg 2008; 22: 297–306.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  34. 34.↵
    1. Gustin SM,
    2. Schwarz A,
    3. Birbaumer N,
    4. Sines N,
    5. Schmidt AC,
    6. Veit R, et al.
    NMDA-receptor antagonist and morphine decrease CRPS-pain and cerebral pain representation. Pain 2010; 151: 69–76.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  35. 35.↵
    1. Hojsted J,
    2. Sjogren P
    . Addiction to opioids in chronic pain patients: a literature review. Eur J Pain 2007; 11: 490–518.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  36. 36.
    1. Schiller PW,
    2. Nguyen TM,
    3. Saray A,
    4. Poon AW,
    5. Laferriere A,
    6. Coderre TJ
    . The bifunctional mu opioid agonist/antioxidant [Dmt(1)]DALDA is a superior analgesic in an animal model of complex regional pain syndrome-type i. ACS Chem Neurosci 2015; 6: 1789–1793.
    OpenUrl
  37. 37.
    1. Harden RN,
    2. Bruehl S,
    3. Backonja MM
    . The use of opioids in treatment of chronic pain: an examination of the ongoing controversy. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil 1997; 9: 155–180.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  38. 38.↵
    1. Kingery WS
    . A critical review of controlled clinical trials for peripheral neuropathic pain and complex regional pain syndromes. Pain 1997; 73: 123–139.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  39. 39.↵
    1. Rowbotham MC
    . Pharmacologic management of complex regional pain syndrome. Clin J Pain 2006; 22: 425–429.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  40. 40.↵
    1. Azad SC,
    2. Beyer A,
    3. Romer AW,
    4. Galle-Rod A,
    5. Peter K,
    6. Schops P
    . Continuous axillary brachial plexus analgesia with low dose morphine in patients with complex regional pain syndromes. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2000; 17: 185–188.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  41. 41.
    1. Agarwal S,
    2. Polydefkis M,
    3. Block B,
    4. Haythornthwaite J,
    5. Raja SN
    . Transdermal fentanyl reduces pain and improves functional activity in neuropathic pain states. Pain Med 2007; 8: 554–62.
    OpenUrl
  42. 42.
    1. Vorobeychik Y,
    2. Giampetro DM
    . Topical lidocaine and epidural bupivacaine/hydromorphone in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome type 2. Pain Physician 2007; 10: 513–514.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  43. 43.↵
    1. Kapural L,
    2. Lokey K,
    3. Leong MS,
    4. Fiekowsky S,
    5. Stanton-Hicks M,
    6. Sapienza-Crawford AJ, et al.
    Intrathecal ziconotide for complex regional pain syndrome: seven case reports. Pain Pract 2009; 9: 296–303.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  44. 44.↵
    1. Brown S,
    2. Johnston B,
    3. Amaria K,
    4. Watkins J,
    5. Campbell F,
    6. Pehora C, et al.
    A randomized controlled trial of amitriptyline versus gabapentin for complex regional pain syndrome type I and neuropathic pain in children. Scand J Pain 2016; 13: 156–163.
    OpenUrl
  45. 45.↵
    1. Komoly S.
    [Treatment of complex regional pain syndrome with amitriptyline]. Ideggyogy Sz 2019; 72: 279–281. Hungarian
    OpenUrl
  46. 46.↵
    1. Saarto T,
    2. Wiffen PJ
    . Antidepressants for neuropathic pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007: CD005454.
  47. 47.↵
    1. Gilron I,
    2. Bailey JM,
    3. Tu D,
    4. Holden RR,
    5. Jackson AC,
    6. Houlden RL
    . Nortriptyline and gabapentin, alone and in combination for neuropathic pain: a double-blind, randomised controlled crossover trial. Lancet 2009; 374: 1252–1261.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  48. 48.↵
    1. Aiyer R,
    2. Barkin RL,
    3. Bhatia A
    . Treatment of Neuropathic Pain with Venlafaxine: A Systematic Review. Pain Med 2017; 18: 1999–2012.
    OpenUrl
  49. 49.
    1. Barkin RL,
    2. Barkin S
    . The role of venlafaxine and duloxetine in the treatment of depression with decremental changes in somatic symptoms of pain, chronic pain, and the pharmacokinetics and clinical considerations of duloxetine pharmacotherapy. Am J Ther 2005; 12: 431–438.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  50. 50.↵
    1. Sebastin SJ
    . Complex regional pain syndrome. Indian J Plast Surg 2011; 44: 298–307.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  51. 51.↵
    1. Palmer G
    . Complex regional pain syndrome. Aust Prescr 2015; 38: 82–86.
    OpenUrl
  52. 52.↵
    1. Scher CS,
    2. Clebone A,
    3. Miller SM,
    4. Roccaforte JD,
    5. Capan LM
    1. Kucera T,
    2. Chae F
    . Is Sympathetic Blockade Useful in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS)? In: Scher CS, Clebone A, Miller SM, Roccaforte JD, Capan LM, editors. You’re Wrong, I’m Right. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2017. p. 383–385.
  53. 53.↵
    1. Javed S,
    2. Abdi S
    . Use of anticonvulsants and antidepressants for treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: a literature review. Pain Manag 2021; 11: 189–99.
    OpenUrl
  54. 54.↵
    1. Derry S,
    2. Bell RF,
    3. Straube S,
    4. Wiffen PJ,
    5. Aldington D,
    6. Moore RA
    . Pregabalin for neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019; 1: CD007076.
  55. 55.↵
    1. Finnerup NB,
    2. Gottrup H,
    3. Jensen TS
    . Anticonvulsants in central pain. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2002; 3: 1411–1420.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  56. 56.↵
    1. van de Vusse AC,
    2. Stomp-van den Berg SG,
    3. Kessels AH,
    4. Weber WE
    . Randomised controlled trial of gabapentin in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome type 1 [ISRCTN84121379]. BMC Neurol 2004; 4: 13.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  57. 57.↵
    1. Saltik S,
    2. Sozen HG,
    3. Basgul S,
    4. Karatoprak EY,
    5. Icagasioglu A
    . Pregabalin Treatment of a Patient With Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Pediatr Neurol 2016; 54: 88–90.
    OpenUrl
  58. 58.↵
    1. Swann AC
    . Major system toxicities and side effects of anticonvulsants. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 16–21.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  59. 59.↵
    1. Araya EI,
    2. Claudino RF,
    3. Piovesan EJ,
    4. Chichorro JG
    . Trigeminal Neuralgia: Basic and Clinical Aspects. Curr Neuropharmacol 2020; 18: 109–119.
    OpenUrl
  60. 60.↵
    1. Harke H,
    2. Gretenkort P,
    3. Ladleif HU,
    4. Rahman S,
    5. Harke O
    . The response of neuropathic pain and pain in complex regional pain syndrome I to carbamazepine and sustained-release morphine in patients pretreated with spinal cord stimulation: a double-blinded randomized study. Anesth Analg 2001; 92: 488–495.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  61. 61.↵
    1. Cepeda MS,
    2. Lau J,
    3. Carr DB
    . Defining the therapeutic role of local anesthetic sympathetic blockade in complex regional pain syndrome: a narrative and systematic review. Clin J Pain 2002; 18: 216–233.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  62. 62.↵
    1. Doroshenko M,
    2. Turkot O,
    3. Horn DB
    . Sympathetic nerve block. StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island (FL); 2020.
  63. 63.↵
    1. Wie C,
    2. Gupta R,
    3. Maloney J,
    4. Pew S,
    5. Freeman J,
    6. Strand N
    . Interventional Modalities to Treat Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2021; 25: 10.
    OpenUrl
  64. 64.↵
    1. Zhao J,
    2. Wang Y,
    3. Wang D
    . The Effect of Ketamine Infusion in the Treatment of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: a Systemic Review and Meta-analysis. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2018; 22: 12.
    OpenUrl
  65. 65.↵
    1. Morgan CJ,
    2. Curran HV
    , Independent Scientific Committee on D. Ketamine use: a review. Addiction 2012; 107: 27–38.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  66. 66.↵
    1. Maher DP,
    2. Chen L,
    3. Mao J
    . Intravenous Ketamine Infusions for Neuropathic Pain Management: A Promising Therapy in Need of Optimization. Anesth Analg 2017; 124: 661–674.
    OpenUrl
  67. 67.↵
    1. Kirkpatrick AF,
    2. Saghafi A,
    3. Yang K,
    4. Qiu P,
    5. Alexander J,
    6. Bavry E, et al.
    Optimizing the Treatment of CRPS With Ketamine. Clin J Pain 2020; 36: 516–523.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  68. 68.↵
    1. Cacchio A,
    2. De Blasis E,
    3. De Blasis V,
    4. Santilli V,
    5. Spacca G
    . Mirror therapy in complex regional pain syndrome type 1 of the upper limb in stroke patients. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2009; 23: 792–799.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  69. 69.↵
    1. Wittkopf PG,
    2. Johnson MI
    . Mirror therapy: A potential intervention for pain management. Rev Assoc Med Bras (1992) 2017; 63: 1000–1005.
    OpenUrl
  70. 70.↵
    1. McCabe CS,
    2. Haigh RC,
    3. Ring EF,
    4. Halligan PW,
    5. Wall PD,
    6. Blake DR
    . A controlled pilot study of the utility of mirror visual feedback in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome (type 1). Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003; 42: 97–101.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  71. 71.↵
    1. Moseley GL
    . Graded motor imagery is effective for long-standing complex regional pain syndrome: a randomised controlled trial. Pain 2004; 108: 192–198.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  72. 72.↵
    1. Mendez-Rebolledo G,
    2. Gatica-Rojas V,
    3. Torres-Cueco R,
    4. Albornoz-Verdugo M,
    5. Guzman-Munoz E
    . Update on the effects of graded motor imagery and mirror therapy on complex regional pain syndrome type 1: A systematic review. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil 2017; 30: 441–449.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  73. 73.↵
    1. Lee BH,
    2. Scharff L,
    3. Sethna NF,
    4. McCarthy CF,
    5. Scott-Sutherland J,
    6. Shea AM, et al.
    Physical therapy and cognitive-behavioral treatment for complex regional pain syndromes. J Pediatr 2002; 141: 135–140.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  74. 74.↵
    1. Chimenti RL,
    2. Frey-Law LA,
    3. Sluka KA
    . A Mechanism-Based Approach to Physical Therapist Management of Pain. Phys Ther 2018; 98: 302–314.
    OpenUrl
  75. 75.↵
    1. Moretti A,
    2. Gimigliano F,
    3. Paoletta M,
    4. Liguori S,
    5. Toro G,
    6. Aulicino M, et al.
    Efficacy and effectiveness of physical agent modalities in complex regional pain syndrome type I: a scoping review. Applied Sciences 2021; 11: 1857.
    OpenUrl
  76. 76.↵
    1. YILMAZ E
    . The Result of Combination of Medical and Physical Therapy in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation Sciences/Fiziksel Tup ve Rehabilitasyon Bilimleri Dergisi 2021; 24: 251–259.
    OpenUrl
  77. 77.↵
    1. Oerlemans HM,
    2. Oostendorp RA,
    3. de Boo T,
    4. Goris RJ
    . Pain and reduced mobility in complex regional pain syndrome I: outcome of a prospective randomised controlled clinical trial of adjuvant physical therapy versus occupational therapy. Pain 1999; 83: 77–83.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  78. 78.↵
    1. Parkitny L,
    2. Wand BM,
    3. Graham C,
    4. Quintner J,
    5. Moseley GL
    . Interdisciplinary Management of Complex Regional Pain Syndrome of the Face. Phys Ther 2016; 96: 1067–1073.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  79. 79.↵
    1. Shulman J,
    2. Cybulski A,
    3. Randall E,
    4. Greco KF,
    5. Bryant G,
    6. Jervis K, et al.
    Clinical Assessment of Mechanical Allodynia in Youth With Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: Development and Preliminary Validation of the Pediatric Tactile Sensitivity Test of Allodynia (Pedi-Sense). J Pain 2023; 24: 706–715.
    OpenUrl
  80. 80.↵
    1. Sluka KA,
    2. Walsh D
    . Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation: basic science mechanisms and clinical effectiveness. J Pain 2003; 4: 109–21.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  81. 81.↵
    1. Houde F,
    2. Harvey MP,
    3. Tremblay Labrecque PF,
    4. Lamarche F,
    5. Lefebvre A,
    6. Leonard G
    . Combining Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation to Relieve Persistent Pain in a Patient Suffering from Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Case Report. J Pain Res 2020; 13: 467–473.
    OpenUrl
  82. 82.↵
    1. Ryan C,
    2. King R,
    3. Robinson V,
    4. Punt T,
    5. Dinse H,
    6. Grunenberg C, et al.
    Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation using an LTP-like repetitive stimulation protocol for patients with upper limb complex regional pain syndrome: a feasibility study. Hand Therapy 2017; 22: 52–63.
    OpenUrl
  83. 83.↵
    1. Bilgili A,
    2. Cakir T,
    3. Dogan SK,
    4. Ercalik T,
    5. Filiz MB,
    6. Toraman F
    . The effectiveness of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in the management of patients with complex regional pain syndrome: A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled prospective study. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil 2016; 29: 661–671.
    OpenUrl
  84. 84.↵
    1. Chon TY,
    2. Lee MC
    , editors. Acupuncture. Mayo Clinic Proceedings; 2013: Elsevier.
  85. 85.↵
    1. Chen T,
    2. Zhang WW,
    3. Chu YX,
    4. Wang YQ
    . Acupuncture for Pain Management: Molecular Mechanisms of Action. Am J Chin Med 2020; 48: 793–811.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  86. 86.↵
    1. Hommer DH
    . Chinese scalp acupuncture relieves pain and restores function in complex regional pain syndrome. Mil Med 2012; 177: 1231–1234.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  87. 87.↵
    1. Wang WY,
    2. Wan FM,
    3. Ding SQ.
    [Clinical observation of Jingu three-needle therapy combined with Xingnao Kaiqiao acupuncture on complex regional pain syndrome after stroke]. Zhongguo Zhen Jiu 2019; 39: 1262–1266. Chinese
    OpenUrl
  88. 88.↵
    1. Wang J,
    2. Zheng X,
    3. Liu B,
    4. Yin C,
    5. Chen R,
    6. Li X, et al.
    Electroacupuncture Alleviates Mechanical Allodynia of a Rat Model of CRPS-I and Modulates Gene Expression Profiles in Dorsal Root Ganglia. Front Neurol 2020; 11: 580997.
    OpenUrl
  89. 89.↵
    1. Grabow TS,
    2. Tella PK,
    3. Raja SN
    . Spinal cord stimulation for complex regional pain syndrome: an evidence-based medicine review of the literature. Clin J Pain 2003; 19: 371–83.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  90. 90.↵
    1. Jeon YH
    . Spinal cord stimulation in pain management: a review. Korean J Pain 2012; 25: 143–150.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  91. 91.↵
    1. Sdrulla AD,
    2. Guan Y,
    3. Raja SN
    . Spinal Cord Stimulation: Clinical Efficacy and Potential Mechanisms. Pain Pract 2018; 18: 1048–1067.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  92. 92.↵
    1. Gill JS,
    2. Asgerally A,
    3. Simopoulos TT
    . High-frequency spinal cord stimulation at 10 kHz for the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: a case Series of patients with or without previous spinal cord stimulator implantation. Pain Pract 2019; 19: 289–294.
    OpenUrl
  93. 93.↵
    1. Yuan B,
    2. Liu D,
    3. Liu X
    . Spinal cord stimulation exerts analgesia effects in chronic constriction injury rats via suppression of the TLR4/NF-kappaB pathway. Neurosci Lett 2014; 581: 63–68.
    OpenUrl
  94. 94.↵
    1. Visnjevac O,
    2. Costandi S,
    3. Patel BA,
    4. Azer G,
    5. Agarwal P,
    6. Bolash R, et al.
    A Comprehensive Outcome-Specific Review of the Use of Spinal Cord Stimulation for Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Pain Pract 2017; 17: 533–545.
    OpenUrlPubMed
  95. 95.↵
    1. Lee Y,
    2. Lee CJ,
    3. Choi E,
    4. Lee PB,
    5. Lee HJ,
    6. Nahm FS
    . Lumbar Sympathetic Block with Botulinum Toxin Type A and Type B for the Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Toxins (Basel) 2018;10:164.
    OpenUrl
  96. 96.↵
    1. Datta Gupta A,
    2. Edwards S,
    3. Smith J,
    4. Snow J,
    5. Visvanathan R,
    6. Tucker G, et al.
    A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Efficacy of Botulinum Toxin A for Neuropathic Pain. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14: 36.
    OpenUrl
  97. 97.↵
    1. Bellon G,
    2. Venturin A,
    3. Masiero S,
    4. Del Felice A
    . Intra-articular botulinum toxin injection in complex regional pain syndrome: Case report and review of the literature. Toxicon 2019; 159: 41–44.
    OpenUrl
  98. 98.↵
    1. Gharaei H
    . Complex Regional Pain Syndrome and Interventions. Advances in Chronic and Neuropathic Pain: Springer; 2022. p. 135–58.
  99. 99.↵
    1. Zakrzewski W,
    2. Dobrzynski M,
    3. Szymonowicz M,
    4. Rybak Z
    . Stem cells: past, present, and future. Stem Cell Res Ther 2019; 10: 68.
    OpenUrl
  100. 100.↵
    1. Russo M,
    2. Georgius P,
    3. Santarelli DM
    . A new hypothesis for the pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome. Med Hypotheses 2018; 119: 41–53.
    OpenUrlPubMed
PreviousNext
Back to top

In this issue

Neurosciences Journal: 28 (4)
Neurosciences Journal
Vol. 28, Issue 4
1 Oct 2023
  • Table of Contents
  • Cover (PDF)
  • Index by author
Print
Download PDF
Email Article

Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on Neurosciences Journal.

NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address.

Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas.
The complex regional pain syndrome: Diagnosis and management strategies
(Your Name) has sent you a message from Neurosciences Journal
(Your Name) thought you would like to see the Neurosciences Journal web site.
Citation Tools
The complex regional pain syndrome: Diagnosis and management strategies
Fahad S. Alshehri
Neurosciences Journal Oct 2023, 28 (4) 211-219; DOI: 10.17712/nsj.2023.4.20230034

Citation Manager Formats

  • BibTeX
  • Bookends
  • EasyBib
  • EndNote (tagged)
  • EndNote 8 (xml)
  • Medlars
  • Mendeley
  • Papers
  • RefWorks Tagged
  • Ref Manager
  • RIS
  • Zotero
Share
The complex regional pain syndrome: Diagnosis and management strategies
Fahad S. Alshehri
Neurosciences Journal Oct 2023, 28 (4) 211-219; DOI: 10.17712/nsj.2023.4.20230034
Twitter logo Facebook logo Mendeley logo
  • Tweet Widget
  • Facebook Like
  • Google Plus One
Bookmark this article

Jump to section

  • Article
    • Abstract
    • Footnotes
    • References
  • Figures & Data
  • eLetters
  • References
  • Info & Metrics
  • PDF

Related Articles

  • No related articles found.
  • PubMed
  • Google Scholar

Cited By...

  • No citing articles found.
  • Google Scholar

More in this TOC Section

  • Structural and functional changes in the hippocampus induced by environmental exposures
  • Tumefactive demyelinating lesions: A literature review of recent findings
  • Epilepsia partialis continua: A review
Show more Review Article

Similar Articles

Navigate

  • home

More Information

  • Help

Additional journals

  • All Topics

Other Services

  • About

© 2025 Neurosciences Journal Neurosciences is copyright under the Berne Convention and the International Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Neurosciences is an Open Access journal and articles published are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (CC BY-NC). Readers may copy, distribute, and display the work for non-commercial purposes with the proper citation of the original work. Electronic ISSN 1658-3183. Print ISSN 1319-6138.

Powered by HighWire